Indonesia is home to approximately 285 million people – the fourth most populous country in the world – and has been ranked as one of the top ten emitters of global greenhouse gases (The World Bank Group, 2024). More than half of the country’s emissions stem from land use, particularly from deforestation and the clearance of carbon-rich peatlands for agriculture development – often for oil palm plantations (Groom et al., 2022; The World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank, 2021). Another major source of Indonesia’s emissions is the energy sector’s use of fossil fuels – representing about one-quarter of the country’s total emissions (Dunne, 2019).
Indonesia is highly exposed to various climate hazards and vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (The World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank, 2021). According to the 2025 INFORM Risk Index, Indonesia is ranked in the top third of countries most at risk to climate hazards (62nd out of 191), including flooding, droughts, and heatwaves (European Commission, n.d.). The frequency and intensity of climate hazards are expected to grow as climate change worsens. With Indonesia’s large low-elevation coastal population – ranked fifth in the world – the country is especially vulnerable to the impacts of flooding and sea-level rise, including harmful effects to the communities living in coastal areas, as well as to the agricultural and fishing industries (Neumann et al., 2015).
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, illustrates how climate change impacts often interact with other human-driven environmental stressors to create compound risks. It is estimated that by 2050, up to 95% of Jakarta’s coastal areas could be submerged (The World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank, 2021). While the primary cause of this sinking is rapid land subsidence due to excessive groundwater extraction, sea-level rise and tidal flooding associated with climate change further exacerbate the crisis. This convergence of risks is one of the reasons the Indonesian government is relocating the capital to the island of Borneo and constructing a new city, Nusantara (Tarigan & Milko, 2023). Given that a majority of Indonesia’s population live in coastal areas – particularly on the island of Java – many communities, especially rural ones, remain at heightened risk from climate-related hazards such as tidal floods and storms (Rudiarto et al., 2018).
Indonesia’s agriculture is particularly vulnerable to climate change. For instance, the production of rice, a key food staple in Indonesia, is sensitive to fluctuations in the start and duration of the wet season. El Niño events have an impact on rice production by delaying rainfall and increasing chances of yearly rice shortages, and these events are predicted to become more frequent due to climate change (The World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank, 2021).
Indonesia is rich in natural resources (UNFCCC, 2022), and Indonesia’s large tropical rainforests make it among the most biodiverse countries in the world (Margono et al., 2014). However, deforestation and forest loss (including peatlands), mainly due to agriculture (e.g., palm oil plantations, illegal logging), threatens the growth of these carbon-rich forests and has implications for Indonesia’s climate change mitigation efforts (Shahreen, 2022). It is estimated that Indonesia lost over 32 million hectares of tree cover from 2002 to 2024 (Global Forest Watch, n.d.) – an area larger than the United Kingdom. Degradation and deforestation of mangroves, in particular, was responsible for 10% of the country’s overall forestry-related greenhouse gas emissions, even though mangroves make up only 2.6% of Indonesia’s total forest area (Budi Arifanti et al., 2022). Indonesia has also experienced a rise in wildfires in recent years, increasing the country’s carbon emissions and threatening the preservation of forests (Shahreen, 2022). The 2019 fires (mainly among peatlands) were especially damaging, emitting twice the amount of carbon pollution released by fires in the Amazon during the same year (Jong, 2019).
To address these issues, the Indonesian government has created new policies for the land use sector by creating a moratorium on new permits, and increasing the preservation of forests and peatlands through improved sustainability management (UNFCCC, 2022). In 2015, President Jokowi started a social forestry program to give people legal access to 12.7 million hectares of forests. The initiative includes land rezoning, capacity building, and enhancing the value chain for sustainable livelihoods (The World Bank, 2021).
Indonesia is home to about 50–70 million Indigenous people – about 18%–25% of the total population (IWGIA, n.d.). For Indigenous people in Indonesia, the loss of land has greatly impacted their livelihoods, including threats to their homes, identity and culture, access to food and water, economic structures, and well-being. Indigenous populations (Masyarakat Adat) are especially affected by deforestation and forest loss, particularly as a result of oil palm plantation development (Nnoko-Mewanu, 2019). Conflicts regarding land are common and have been frequently connected to oil palm plantations (Nnoko-Mewanu, 2019). This often leads to the displacement of Indigenous people, forcing them to relocate their homes and communities.
There has been a great deal of criticism about government oversight and corporate accountability, arguing that the government has failed to protect Indigenous people and has ignored massive forest clearance, allowing for the expansion of oil palm plantations (Nnoko-Mewanu, 2019). In May 2023, Indonesia’s first program to directly support Indigenous populations and local communities, the Nusantara Fund, was launched (Jong, 2023). The Nusantara Fund aims to reach $20 million in funding from donors and will enable Indigenous populations and local communities in Indonesia to map, protect, and rehabilitate millions of acres of land.
Indonesia is prioritizing the development of clean energy sources in national policy, eventually putting the country on a path toward decarbonization. While Indonesia is one of the largest global producers of coal and the largest gas supplier in Southeast Asia, the country has ambitious plans to become one of the world’s largest biofuel producers (IEA, n.d.; UNFCC, 2022), and to cut emissions by about 32% on their own or 43% with international support, exceeding the goals set by the Paris Climate Agreement (Reuters, 2022). During the G20 event in November 2022, Indonescaia signed the Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP) with international lenders and the G7 nations to help reduce dependency on fossil fuels and increase the use of renewables. The USD 20 billion funding is currently being disbursed and expects to see the early retirement of coal-fired plants (Jong, 2022). Importantly, Indonesia has significant solar photovoltaic and wind resources that could be used on a massive scale (The World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank, 2021).
Under President Prabowo Subianto, who took office in October 2024, Indonesia has emphasized energy independence and development of renewable energy technologies. The new administration has made ambitious pledges, including a plan to phase out all coal-fired and fossil fuel power plants within 15 years and develop 75 gigawatts of renewable energy capacity (Cahyadi, 2024; Mallyvirta, 2024). President Prabowo has called for increased biofuel production from palm oil, cassava, and sugar cane to boost energy self-sufficiency, even proposing a separate palm oil ministry (Tachev, 2024). However, the administration’s commitment to decarbonization remains unclear, with coal industry connections and a focus on energy security potentially competing with climate goals (Suharsono & Nugroho, 2025; Yusgiantoro, 2024). Despite these tensions, some positive developments have emerged, including initiatives to train oil palm smallholders in sustainable farming practices that reduce deforestation (Jong, 2024) and government efforts to reform energy subsidies to limit pollution. Indonesia has reaffirmed its commitment to achieving net-zero emissions by 2060 (Office of Assistant to Deputy Cabinet Secretary for State Documents & Translation, 2024), though experts warn that without concrete policy changes and institutional consolidation, the country risks moving backwards in its energy transition (Suharsono & Nugroho, 2025).
An effective national strategy in Indonesia must consider the public’s beliefs and attitudes about climate change, risk perceptions, and other responses to the environment (e.g., values, behavior). People in Indonesia will play a critical role in the success or failure of this strategy through their actions as citizens, consumers, and communities. Indonesia’s deeply religious character significantly shapes these public responses and behaviors. With 87% of the population following Islam, 11% Christianity, and the remainder practicing other faiths or no religion (Stirling, 2024), religious beliefs have substantial influence on how Indonesians conduct their lives (fiftyfive5 and Purpose, 2021). The importance of faith is particularly pronounced, with 89% of Indonesians saying religion is either very or extremely important in their lives, and 38% reporting strong religious faith – though this tends to be more prevalent among older generations than younger people (fiftyfive5 and Purpose, 2021). Religious actors themselves have a mixed environmental legacy. For instance, while some mosques have transitioned to solar energy (Wee, 2024), certain Islamic groups still invest in coal mines (Mubarok & Maulana, 2024).
Understanding how religious beliefs intersect with environmental attitudes and climate change perceptions is therefore crucial for developing effective communication strategies and policies. Understanding how Indonesians respond to climate change and environmental problems – including what they know, believe, and support, as well as what they misunderstand, disbelieve, or oppose – has important implications for educating and communicating with the public to build more support and demand for climate policy.
In an effort to understand public responses to climate change and the environment in Indonesia, the Yale Program on Climate Change Communication conducted a nationally representative survey of Indonesian adults (18+). The study was designed to investigate current public climate change awareness, beliefs, attitudes, policy support, and behavior. It also investigates public attitudes regarding different energy sources and support for a clean energy transition in Indonesia. The goals of this research include contributing to both scientific and public understanding and dialogue about climate issues, and providing relevant information for the climate change community in Indonesia.
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